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The Beginnings of Western Food Culture in Yokohama
By Shunro Kusama

I. Restaurants and Hotels at the End of the Tokugawa Period
1. Operations Commence in the Wake of Port Opening
The appearance of restaurants and diners

Illustration 105: "An Enjoyable Time over Drinks and Tea" (Sadahide, 1862)

After Yokohama became an open port in 1859, foreigners began steadily arriving in Japan. Being from different dietary cultures, however, they faced difficulties in this country in matters of food and cooking because they were unable to obtain suitable foodstuffs. Although they attempted to provision themselves through ships arriving at the port or through foreign-owned trading companies, these efforts were not always rewarded. This led, initially, to the opening of simple diners, and later to the establishment of restaurants.

In December 1862, the Golden Gate Restaurant opened for business at lot no. 49 in the Yokohama foreign settlement. Set up by C. George & Co. to serve the Europeans and Americans living at the foreign settlement, as well as foreigners putting in at Yokohama, this establishment ranks as one of the oldest Western restaurants in Japan. Operating without fixed business hours, it provided not only meals but also an assortment of drinks, seeking to offer service at reasonable prices whatever the time of day. Several years later, the Golden Gate moved to lot no. 130, where it metamorphosed into an inn with its own diner.

In 1863, a restaurant called Au‚˜ Trois Freres Provencax ("The Three Brothers of Provence") opened its doors (Japan Herald). Operated by the French company, Pellet & Debez Co., it advertised selections from menus, as opposed to set meal service, and also the availability of an assortment of dough-based confectioneries, such as pies and tarts, as well as other sweets. Its advertisements also noted the careful attention that its staff paid when taking orders for dinners and pastries. The restaurant operated between the hours of 10 a.m. and 7 p.m. Launched as a partnership, the Au‚˜ Trois Freres Provencax was soon taken over by Pellet, who recruited a chef from one of the top hotels in China. Occasionally, in response to requests, the restaurant's staff prepared food at locations other than the restaurant.

On July 30, 1864, the Yokohama Restaurant opened for business at the Yokohama Hotel, which stood at lot no. 70 in the foreign settlement. A highly experienced Frenchman was hired as its chef, and it offered not only set meals (table d'hote) and dinners, but also a superb selection from a menu. Because of these services, the restaurant was frequently used as a site for official banquets.

Simple restaurants and diners also sprang up as the Tokugawa era drew to a close. These included establishments such as the Au Point du Tour, the "British Empire," the "Flying Horse," and others. Illustration 105 depicts Westerners enjoying the food and drink at one of these eateries.

The country's first Western-run hotel, and its wines and spirits

The first hotel run by Westerners in Japan opened its doors in February 1860. This was the Yokohama Hotel, whose advertisements appeared in the North China Herald (1860) under the heading "Yokuhama Hotel." The ads announcing the hotel's opening had been placed over a period of months by one C. J. Huffnagel, a Dutchman. The hotel was located at a site designated "Residence of 5th Dutchman, Nassau," in the Great Map of Yokohama at the Time of Port Opening, an address which later became lot no. 70 in the Yokohama foreign settlement (presently, 70 Yamashita-cho, Naka-ku). Huffnagel was the fifth Dutch businessman to arrive in Yokohama; his previous occupation had been captain of the ship Nassau. According to his advertisements, the Yokohama Hotel offered comfortable rooms suitable for use by the entire family, and was reasonably priced. The ads also stated that it was the kind of hotel that foreigners had long been awaiting, one that would be patronized by both Western residents and visitors alike.

B.Eulenbury and G.Spiess of Prussia came to the hotel in October 1860, and reported on its airy dining room, bar, and billiard room. The following year, Philipp von Siebold and his son were guests. Von Siebold later recounted that people staying there would go to the bar for a good time, and that he had become acquainted during his stay with the prominent cultural figures, W. Heine and M. Bakunin, and with the industrialist, E. Clark (Siebold's Final Journey to Japan).

In 1862, after working at the Yokohama Hotel, the Englishman J. B. Macauly opened the Royal British Hotel (at lot no. 68 in the foreign settlement) and became its manager. J. B. Macauly created a thriving business, advertising "lodging facilities for women and the family," delicious food, reasonable rates and so on. Scenes from the hotel were captured by Charles Wirgman in his paintings.

In 1863, the Yokohama Hotel was sold to G. H. Carrier, who advertised the serving of table d'hote at 12 noon and 7:30 p.m., and the offering of fine quality whiskey. Carriere's ads also highlighted the hotel's billiard tables and bowling alley (Japan Herald). A year later, Carriere opened a liquor store, where he sold what were described as the finest quality wines and spirits imported from France and elsewhere, including four types of brandy, two brands of whiskey, five kinds of other liquors, and nine varieties of wine. While continuing to operate the hotel thereafter, he produced advertisements such as the one shown in Illustration 107. But after the entire hotel was lost in the great Yokohama fire of 1866, Carriere went out of business.

In October 1863, the Anglo-Saxon Hotel began operations along the road leading to the pier-i.e., along the town's main street. The Japan Herald reported on the new hotel as follows: "John Thomas was formerly the chief steward aboard the ship. "Leemoon," Respectfully, he has opened a new hotel by the above name for the residents of the city. The hotel will be open only to gentlemen and senior managers at the port of Yokohama. Table d'hote are served only from 7 p.m., but drinks will be available at all times."

John Thomas, the manager, was clearly doing everything he could to assure that customers would be able to drink Western wines and spirits at any time of day. As had been true of the passenger ship "Leemoon," Thomas was aiming to create a hotel that would become a social gathering place for Westerners working in European and American trading companies.

2. Foreign Hotels After 1864
In 1864, Chatilllon opened the ?Hotel du Japon in the French section of the foreign settlement, advertising it as a comfortable and convenient facility. This was followed by the building of the Hotel de I'Europe (at lot no. 97). Because the latter's manager, T. J. Ross, had come to Yokohama after a successful career in China, which included running hotels in Shanghai and Hong Kong, he knew exactly what kind of facilities would be needed to provide relaxation to Europeans and Americans. Based on this experience and knowledge, Ross even had bathrooms installed. Moreover, not only did he bring along experienced French chefs and barbers with him when he arrived, but he also offered the finest wines, liquors and spirits from France, Italy and Spain, which he sold for a dollar a drink at breakfast and lunch, and for a dollar twenty at dinner time.

In July 1864, J. Mixter (a former employee of the Yokohama Hotel) opened the Tycoon Hotel (from the Japanese ideograph meaning "sovereign") at lot no. 51 of the foreign settlement. His hotel sought to serve, not so much the general public, as officers of the armies and navies of Western countries. It offered breakfast from 10 a.m., lunch from 1 p.m., and dinner from 6:30 p.m.. Mixter also opened his doors to the Japanese, probably because it was located near the freight offloading area-i.e., near the customs office. Mixter advertised to Japanese readers through the Japan Trade Newspaper (1864), saying that, while the hotel would always prepare its food to suit the prevailing seasonal climate, it sometimes offered unusual delicacies, which could be prepared specially in ways desired by its customers. He added that the hotel provided "wines, strong spirits, port, French liqueurs, and syrups." The ad went on to say that the hotel offered the option of cash payments on the day the service was received, or of settling accounts once a month. The question arises as to whether this kind of vernacular advertisement was understandable to the Japanese of that day, for Mixter's list of drinks was oddly translated. For example, the term "strong spirits"; the rendering of sweet red Portguese wine as "boruto wine"; and the use of an ideographic combination that meant something like "sweet soy sauce" to denote syrups. Moreover James Mixter, the hotel manager, became "Shyamesa Ministore" in the transliterated version.

In November of the same year, Michell & Laplase opened the Hotel des Colonies (Immigrants Hotel) , having purchased the Hotel de I'Europe from T. J. Ross. The Hotel des Colonias offered table d'hote service at 10 a.m. and 6 p.m.

In the same year, The Commercial Hotel began operations, serving table d'hote at 7 p.m.. It had single rooms, and rooms for families, as well as billiard tables and a bowling alley. Over time the hotel grew in fame. For example, the French diplomat, de Beauvoir, stayed there in 1867, after arriving in Yokohama from China. He noted that while the hotel was housed in a plain wooden building, parties were held there each evening till nine o'clock and "the place bubbled over with voices speaking French." At the same time, de Beauvoir expressed astonishment at the Westernization of Japanese customs and morals. That is to say, he observed the degree to which Westernization had begun permeating the landscape, citing things such as the availability of tables set with forks and napkins at the French Consulate, the existence of a foreign cook from the West in Yokosuka, and so on .

Although small in size, a number of hotels that were always open for food and drinks to Westerners began appearing round the town. One example was the "Cottage," which provided excellent food throughout the day. It kept its own inventory of wines and spirits, and advertised that these drinks were always available. Other establishments such as the "National Inn" and the "Oriental Inn" were also launched. Illustration 110, a work by Sadahide, depicts a European store and a Chinese office, situated alongside a diner and a kitchen. Viewed in total, the illustration could also be seen as a small hotel, or inn. Finally, in 1867, a hotel also commenced operations in Tokyo. This was the Tsukiji Hotel, which remained in business only briefly.

II. Western Food and Hotels of the Early Meiji Period
1. Hotels Launched Between 1869 and 1872
Small hotels

Illustration 110: "A Foreign Mercantile House and Kitchen" (Sadahide, 1865)

To begin, in 1869, the "Yokohama Hotel," operated by a Mrs. Green, was given it's outline in a contemporary newspaper:

"Mrs. Green has moved here from the Belle-view Hotel in Nagasaki. She will soon be opening a hotel that will take the name of the once popular and famous "Yokohama Hotel." This hotel promises to be large and pleasant, with rooms offering substantial space. Its food should continue to win fame, and we expect to see seasonal delicacies served in addition to the regular fare. Guests will be able to eat at any time of day, but meals taken with others will be offered in the morning at 8:30 a.m., at midday at 12:30 p.m., and in the evening at 6:30 p.m. Because Mrs. Green will be running the hotel on her own, this will probably mean greater convenience and comfort for customers. The support that was given her for many years in Nagasaki will undoubtedly continue in Yokohama."

Thus the Yokohama Hotel began operations in November 1869 at lot no. 37 of the foreign settlement (Water Street). A newspaper article that appeared a year later in 1870 said the following: "Based on Mrs. Green's ambitious managerial policies, the hotel has undergone repair and renovation, and offers every convenience to visitors and lodgers. However, the food is table d'hote, changed either daily or monthly".

Mrs. Green's hotel was located at the site of the former Bay View Hotel (run by G. Domoney). So it appears that she had acquired and refurbished that hotel. However, by 1872, Mrs. Green's control of the business had passed into the hands of one W. Thompson. Although Thompson retained the hotel's name and its operational features, this arrangement was also fated not to last, and after a few years the hotel went out of business.

In 1872, the Golden Rule Hotel had opened for business at lot no. 70 of the foreign settlement. Run by a Mrs. Strandberg, it served only table d'hote at 12:30 p.m. and 6:30 p.m., while offering the finest wines and spirits on its drink menu. But it too closed down after only a few years.

Large hotels

In Yokohama's hotel industry in the late Tokugawa-early Meiji period, W. Curtis's activities were especially prominent. By 1864, he had already taken over the Royal British Hotel, renamed it the Commercial Hotel, and ventured into the hotel management business. For a few years after the Restoration, he continued to run the hotel at lot no. 86 of the foreign settlement.

Many foreigners stayed at this hotel, one of whom, Mr. L. de Beauvoir, left a detailed account of his experiences there in his book Record of a Trip Around the World .

Illustration 112: A hotel advertisement by W. Curtis (Japan Herald, 1872)

After opening the International Hotel at lot no. 18 of the foreign settlement in 1868, Curtis shifted the focus of his operations to the new hotel. He advertised the fine views of the harbor that guests would enjoy, as well as accommodations suitable for families. The hotel was also familiar to the Japanese, who knew it because it had been incorporated into a woodblock print produced by the secondary Hiroshige, entitled "Illustration of Foreign Inn at No. 18, Kaigan Street, Yokohama." The hotel's meals, whether taken together at tables or alone in rooms, were available throughout the day. Only the highest quality brands of wines and spirits were served. The International Hotel also boasted of its billiard tables, and its ability to accommodate guests who required horse-drawn carriages.

As indicated in Illustration 112, Curtis had soon become involved with Bonnat & Co. in the management of his hotels. But even after this joint arrangement, the International continued to serve Table d'hote, along with wines and spirits.

In 1876, Curtis opened a new hotel at lot no. 60 called the St. Charles Hotel, and sold the International Hotel to E. S. Smith & Co.

Smith & Co. put a markedly new managerial policy into effect. For example, it offered a monthly food service, charging $15 a month for lunches only, and $35 dollars for three meals a day. It also sought new ways of attracting clients and of bringing greater prosperity to the hotel by paying close attention to its newspaper advertising, where it began, for example, to include illustrations to promote its billiard tables and bar. In this way, the hotel began attracting famous persons as its guests. One of these was W. S. Clark, who in June 1876, was on his way from the United States to Hokkaido on a new assignment to teach at the Hokkaido School of Agriculture. His first steps in Japan, however, were taken on the pier at Yokohama, from which he proceeded immediately to lodge at the International Hotel.

In the following section, we will deal with the history of the Grand Hotel, which was located at lot no. 110 of the foreign settlement.

Although a hotel building existed at the above location in 1870, the name "Grand Hotel" first appeared in written records in the 1872 edition of the Directory of Foreign Residents of Japan, which contained the entry "Lot 110, Grand Hotel." The following year, the photographer, Beato, formed a group of investors, and with their cooperation renovated the facility and opened the Grand Hotel. The opening took place on August 16, 1873. The hotel was managed by W. H. Smith and J.G.Lyons, and had seven employees.

In September 1873, under the name of its principals, the hotel took out the following advertisement in the Yokohama Mainichi Shimbun: "The hotel is comparable in all respects to the hotels of Europe and America. Food is divided into two categories, regularly available and specially ordered, both of which we prepare with the utmost care. Moreover, as soon as orders are received, we can rapidly prepare special menus for between four and a hundred people. Please feel free to inspect the facilities inside the hotel. . . ." The hotel's ability to produce specially ordered food for a hundred people is astonishing.

Five years later, the hotel advertised "convenient facilities," including shared and private rooms for women. The ads also mention providing a variety of information to persons traveling around Japan, and supplying catering services for picnic parties. They also note the hotel's ability to respond quickly to needs for individual meals, dinners, light snacks, and evening parties. The hotel's guest rooms were on the second floor, with dining room and kitchen located on the first floor.

Thus the Grand Hotel expanded and improved its facilities with each passing year.

These improvements began to attract famous foreigners to the hotel as well. For example, E. Guimet (the French industrialist and museum director) stayed at the Grand Hotel when he came to Japan in 1876. In his book, Wanderings in Japan, he praised the staff of the hotel for its careful work.

In 1882, an Englishman named C. Dresser wrote a book called Japan: Its Architecture, Art and Manufacture, in which he provided the following detailed description of the food at the Grand Hotel.

"Room rates were $3.50 per room per night, or about 14 shillings. The fish, entrees, and large slices of meat were served one after another, and for a moment I imagined that I was sitting in the Grand Hotel in Paris. Among the items that I was served were preserved meat from Crosse & Blackwell's Co., and marmalade and jam made in Dundee by Keillor & Co."

Rudyard Kipling was also once a guest at the hotel. He reported being astonished at the existence of printed menus, and that customers ordered food not by using the names of the foods listed but by citing their menu numbers.

In this way, after starting off with only 30 rooms, the Grand Hotel grew to a capacity of around 150 guests by 1914, and had achieved a virtually unrivaled position among hotels in Japan. But after it was destroyed in the Great Kanto Earthquake of 1923, its owners were forced to go out of business. Large numbers of people frequented the hotel for its Western food and also for its outdoor terrace which afforded them a charming view of the beautiful harbor. Its success, in other words, sprang from its unsurpassed facilities and environment.

2. Famous Clubs and Hotels
The previously mentioned W. H. Smith had been an officer in the British military. Extremely publicly spirited, he was a zealous promoter of the idea of allowing foreigners residing in Japan to join clubs that had been open only to military personnel. In 1863, he established the "United Service Club," which was opened to civilian residents, and took charge of cooking. In 1867, Smith changed the club's name to the "Yokohama United Club," moved it to lot no. 5 of the foreign settlement, and developed it into a facility that offered lodging as well as dining services. In a short while, total membership grew to 300, because of Smith's policy of allowing persons other than British military personnel and English males to become members.

Following the Restoration, this club became the largest such organization in Japan, also offering comfortable hotel facilities to foreigners. James P. Morrison, one of its members, reminisced that members would often gather for dinner, and that all were cheerful, hardworking and trustworthy gentlemen. No one encouraged the indiscriminate drinking of whiskey, and everyone had returned home by dinner time, leaving the club's bar an abandoned and quiet place. Although Smith left the club in 1878, the Englishman W. H. Poyntz remarked "Approximately 300 officers and citizens had become members. Smith himself took charge of the food preparation, kept the books, and managed all aspects of the club with an untiring emotional energy."

In 1884, the above-mentioned hotel operation was spun off and named the "Club Hotel." Organizationally, one A. Hearne became the manager, and oversaw a staff of eight employees.

In addition to Smith's club, a German Club was founded in 1863 at lot no. 161. Although membership initially numbered only four persons, it grew to approximately 200 persons after the qualification of German nationality was lifted. The club's members gathered occasionally for parties, where members ate and drank together.

Next, there was the famous hotel that trained Japanese.

This was the Oriental Hotel, which was established at lot no. 84 in 1872 and managed by L. Bonnat. Bonnat operated the hotel with four employees, increasing that number to eight in two years time. In 1880, ownership had changed hands. And another 10 years later, the address had become the site of the French Embassy, indicating that the hotel had been moved.

This hotel apparently became famous because of Mr. Bonnat's cuisine. The Bonnat family also operated the "Sweet Meat Restaurant," and were in such demand that they catered dinners for many parties. The Bonnat's fame had become so widespread that, in January 1875, Tatsuo Matsuoka, a cook from the Imperial Household Agency, was sent to them for training.

Known for its outstanding excellent Western food, the Oriental Hotel provided special catering for large parties. For example, an English-language newspaper in 1872 reported on a dance party held by the Yokohama German Club in December 1872: "On this day, the Bonnat Restaurant of the Oriental Hotel prepared the food. All of the dishes served were superb. Thus, when His Excellency, the Ambassador, rose to express his appreciation for the gathering, he did not forget to praise the food." (Japan Times Overland Mail)

We've described hotels and aspects of culinary culture in Yokohama during the late Tokugawa-early Meiji periods. Simple lodging facilities such as inns and taverns also existed. The total number of all lodging facilities, expressed in terms of operations opened between 1859 and 1871, was a large 38. This bespeaks a situation in which hotels and other facilities were springing into existence "like bamboo shoots after a rain," and illustrates a global character in Yokohama in the wake of port opening that exceeds that of the present.

And, it is probably safe to say that the catalyst for the country-wide spreading of French-style food, wines and spirits, was sparked by Japanese who had visited these hotels.